Self-calibrating rate-adaptive pacemaker

ABSTRACT

A system and method for automatically adjusting the operating parameters of a rate-adaptive cardiac pacemaker. In accordance with the method, maximum exertion levels attained by the patient are measured at periodic intervals and stored. The stored maximum exertion levels may then be used to update a long-term maximal exertion level, and the slope of the rate-response curve is adjusted to map the updated long-term maximal exertion level to a maximum allowable pacing rate. The stored maximum exertion levels may also be used to update a sensor target rate which is used to adjust the slope of the rate response curve.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION(S)

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No.11/457,382, filed on Jul. 13, 2006, now issued as U.S. Pat. No.7,567,839, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No.10/839,875, filed on May 6, 2004, now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 7,079,897,which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/657,402,filed on Sep. 8, 2000, now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 6,823,214, thespecifications of which are incorporated herein by reference.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention pertains to systems and methods for cardiac rhythmmanagement. In particular, the invention relates to a system and methodfor automatically adjusting the operating parameters of a rate-adaptivecardiac pacemaker.

BACKGROUND

A conventional cardiac pacemaker is an implantable battery-poweredelectronic device that responds to sensed cardiac events and elapsedtime intervals by changing its functional states so as to properlyinterpret sensed data and deliver pacing pulses to the heart atappropriate times. The pacing pulses are delivered through a lead madeup of electrodes on a catheter or wire that connects the pacemaker tothe heart. Some electronic devices, called implantablecardioverter-defibrillators, are capable of delivering electricalshocks, rather than small-intensity pacing stimuli, in order tocardiovert or defibrillate the heart. The term “pacemaker” as usedherein, however, should be taken to mean both pacemakers and any devicewith a pacemaking function, such as an implantablecardioverter/defibrillator with a pacemaker incorporated therein.

Pacemakers can generally operate in a variety of modes, generallydesignated by a letter code of three positions where each letter in thecode refers to a specific function of the pacemaker. The first letterrefers to which heart chambers are paced and which may be an A (foratrium), a V (for ventricle), D (for both chambers), or O (for none).The second letter refers to which chambers are sensed by the pacemaker'ssensing channels and uses the same letter designations as used forpacing. The third letter refers to the pacemaker's response to a sensedP wave from the atrium or an R wave from the ventricle and may be an I(for inhibited), T (for triggered), D (for dual in which both triggeringand inhibition are used), and O (for no response). Modern pacemakers aretypically programmable so that they can operate in any mode which thephysical configuration of the device will allow. Additional sensing ofphysiological data allows some pacemakers to change the rate at whichthey pace the heart in accordance with some parameter correlated tometabolic demand. Such pacemakers, which are the primary subject of thepresent invention, are called rate-adaptive pacemakers and aredesignated by a fourth letter added to the three-letter code, R.

The most common condition for which pacemakers are used is the treatmentof bradycardia. Permanent pacing for bradycardia is indicated inpatients with symptomatic bradycardia of any type as long as it islikely to be permanent or recurrent and is not associated with atransient condition from which the patient may recover.Atrio-ventricular conduction defects (i.e., AV block) that are fixed orintermittent and sick sinus syndrome represent the most commonindications for permanent pacing. In chronotropically competent patientsin need of ventricular pacing, atrial triggered modes such as DDD or VDDare desirable because they allow the pacing to track the physiologicallynormal atrial rhythm, which causes cardiac output to be responsive tothe metabolic needs of the body. Atrial triggering modes arecontraindicated, however, in patients prone to atrial fibrillation orflutter or in whom a reliable atrial sense cannot be obtained. In theformer case, the ventricles will be paced at too high a rate. Failing tosense an atrial P wave, on the other hand, results in a loss of atrialtracking which can lead to negative hemodynamic effects because thepacemaker then reverts to its minimum ventricular pacing rate. Inpacemaker patients who are chronotropically incompetent (e.g., sinusnode dysfunction) or in whom atrial-triggered modes such as DDD and VDDare contraindicated, the heart rate is dictated solely by the pacemakerin the absence of faster intrinsic cardiac activity. That pacing rate isdetermined by the programmed escape intervals of the pacemaker and isreferred to as the lower rate limit or LRL.

Pacing the heart at a fixed rate as determined by the LRL setting of thepacemaker, however, does not allow the heart rate to increase withincreased metabolic demand. Cardiac output is determined by two factors,the stroke volume and heart rate, with the latter being the primarydeterminant. Although stroke volume can be increased during exercise(e.g., due to increased venous return and increased myocardialcontractility), the resulting increase in cardiac output is usually notsufficient to meet the body's metabolic needs unless the heart rate isalso increased. If the heart is paced at a constant rate, as for exampleby a VVI pacemaker, severe limitations are imposed upon the patient withrespect, to lifestyle and activities. It is to overcome theselimitations and improve the quality of life of such patients thatrate-adaptive pacemakers have been developed.

The body's normal regulatory mechanisms act so as to increase cardiacoutput when the metabolic rate is increased due to an increased exertionlevel in order to transport more oxygen and remove more waste products.One way to control the rate of a pacemaker, therefore, is to measure themetabolic rate of the body and vary the pacing rate in accordance withthe measurement. Metabolic rate can effectively be directly measured by,for example, sensing blood pH or blood oxygen saturation. Practicalproblems with implementing pacemakers controlled by such directmeasurements, however, have led to the development of pacemakers thatare rate-controlled in accordance with physiological variables that areindirectly reflective of the body's metabolic rate such as bodytemperature or respiratory rate. (See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,376,106issued to Stahmann et al. and assigned to Cardiac Pacemakers, Inc., thedisclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference.) Measuringrespiratory rate, for example, estimates oxygen consumption. A betterapproximation to oxygen consumption is the minute ventilation, however,which is the product of ventilation rate and tidal volume. An even moreindirect measurement of metabolic rate is the measurement of bodyactivity or motion with either an accelerometer or vibration sensor. Theactivity-sensing pacemaker uses an accelerometer or microphone-likesensor inside the pacemaker case that responds to motion or mechanicalvibrations of the body by producing electrical signals proportional tothe patient's level of physical activity. More complex rate-responsivesystems incorporate multiple sensors that compensate for the deficits ofspecific individual sensors. All of the above-mentioned sensors,however, are for the purpose of ascertaining the exertion level of thepatient and changing the heart rate in accordance therewith.

In such rate-adaptive pacemakers that vary the pacing rate in accordancewith a measured exertion level, the control system is generallyimplemented as an open-loop controller that maps a particular exertionlevel to one particular heart rate, termed the sensor-indicated rate(SIR). Various parameters are set in order to fit the control system tothe individual patient, including minimal and maximal heart rate andresponsiveness. Minimal and maximal heart rate settings are primarilyfor patient safety, and the responsiveness of the pacemaker determineshow much change in heart rate results from a given change in exertionlevel. An under-responsive pacemaker will unnecessarily limit exerciseduration and intensity in the patient because the heart rate will notincrease enough to match metabolic demand, while an over-responsivepacemaker will lead to palpitations and patient discomfort. Controlparameters are generally set in conventional rate-adaptive pacemakersafter implantation and during clinical visits according to a fixedformula or as a result of exercise testing. There is a need forrate-adaptive pacemakers that automatically adjust control parameters inaccordance with a patient's changing physical condition so as to reducethe need for follow-up clinical visits and extensive testing.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to a system and method for automaticallyadjusting the responsiveness of a rate-adaptive pacemaker using exertionlevel measurements. In a particular implementation of the pacemaker,measured exertion levels in the patient are mapped to a pacing rate by adual-slope rate response curve. The slope of the rate-response curvechanges at a specified heart rate breakpoint from a low-rate responsevalue to a high-rate response value, termed the low rate response factorand high rate response factor, respectively. The heart rate breakpointmay be computed as a percentage of the patient's rate reserve, which isthe difference between the maximum and minimum pacing rates as definedby the rate response curve. In accordance with the invention, maximumexertion levels attained by the patient during a day (or other specifiedperiod) are collected and used to dynamically adjust the responsivenessof the pacemaker.

In one embodiment, daily maximum exertion levels and daily maximumsensor indicated rates are collected and averaged over a specifiedperiod, such as one week. A sensor target rate representing the heartrate demand corresponding to the averaged daily maximum exertion levelis then computed as a function of the daily maximum exertion level andthe patient's maximum exercise capacity as defined by a long-termmaximum exertion level. Periodically, (e.g., every week) theresponsiveness of the pacemaker is increased or decreased in accordancewith whether the weekly average maximum sensor indicated rate is lesseror greater, respectively, than the sensor target rate by adjusting theslope of the rate response curve. The slope of the rate response curvemay be adjusted by incrementing or decrementing the low rate responsefactor by a specified step size and then adjusting the high rateresponse factor to map the patient's long-term maximum exertion level tothe maximum sensor indicated rate in another embodiment, daily maximumexertion levels are collected for a specified time period and used toupdate the long-term maximum exertion level. The slope of the rateresponse curve is then adjusted in order for the updated long-termmaximum exertion level to be mapped to a specified maximum sensorindicated rate.

In the case of a dual-slope rate response curve, the curve may beadjusted with the heart rate breakpoint maintained as a fixed percentageof the rate reserve or as a dynamic percentage of the rate reserve thatchanges in accordance with changes in the long-term maximum exertionlevel. In the latter case, the rate response curve may be adjusted suchthat the percentage of the patient's rate reserve used to compute theheart rate breakpoint is increased or decreased by the percentageincrease or decrease, respectively, in the long-term maximum exertionlevel as a result of updating.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1A is a block diagram of a rate-adaptive pacemaker.

FIG. 1B is a diagram of a single-slope rate response curve.

FIG. 2 shows values of SIR_(DailyMax) plotted for each day of the week.

FIG. 3 shows the slope change of the rate response curve in response tochanges in the average sensor indicated rate.

FIGS. 4 and 5 show how changes in the fitness level of the patientchange the slope of the rate response curve.

FIG. 6 shows the values of EXL_(DailyMax) plotted for each day of theweek and how the ranges of EXL_(DailyMax) are mapped to daily maximumexertion level heart rate EXR_(DailyMax) values.

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIFIC EMBODIMENTS

A particular implementation of a rate-adaptive pacemaker as shown inFIG. 1A. As used herein, the term pacemaker should be taken to mean anycardiac rhythm management device with a pacing functionality includingan implantable cardioverter/defibrillator that includes a pacemaker. Apacemaker controller senses cardiac events through a sensing channel andoutputs pacing pulses to the heart via a pacing channel in accordancewith a programmed pacing mode. A microprocessor serves as the controllerin this embodiment and communicates with a memory 12 via a bidirectionaldata bus 13. The memory 12 typically comprises a ROM or RAM for programstorage and a RAM for data storage. The pacemaker has atrial sensing andpacing channels comprising electrode 34, lead 33, sensing amplifier 31,pulse generator 32, and an atrial channel interface 30 whichcommunicates bidirectionally with a port of microprocessor 10. Thedevice also has ventricular sensing and pacing channels comprisingelectrodes 24, leads, sensing amplifier 21, pulse generator 22, andventricular channel interface 20. For each channel, the same lead andelectrode are used for both sensing and pacing. The channel interfaces20 and 30 include analog-to-digital converters for digitizing sensingsignal inputs from the sensing amplifiers and registers which can bewritten to by the microprocessor in order to output pacing pulses,change the pacing pulse amplitude, and adjust the gain and thresholdvalues for the sensing amplifiers. A telemetry interface 40 is alsoprovided for communicating with an external programmer. A minuteventilation sensor MVS and an accelerometer AC are employed to sense theminute ventilation and body activity, respectively. The pacemaker usesthe sensed minute ventilation and/or the accelerometer signal to adjustthe rate at which the pacemaker paces the heart in the absence of afaster intrinsic rhythm. The microprocessor 10 executes programmedinstructions that implement various pacing and rate-adaptive algorithms,including the method described below.

The responsiveness of a rate-adaptive pacemaker is controlled inaccordance with a rate-response curve RRC such as shown in FIG. 1B.Other embodiments may use a dual-slope curve or a non-linear curve. Achange in exertion level as determined from a minute ventilationmeasurement causes a proportional change in the sensor indicated rate inaccordance with the slope of the curve, termed the response factor RF.The sensor indicated rate is then used as a lower rate limit (LRL) bythe pacemaker to pace the heart in accordance with a programmed pacingmode. The LRL is the rate at which the heart is paced in the absence offaster intrinsic activity. As shown in the figure, the rate responsecurve maps a resting exertion level REL to a minimum sensor indicatedrate MinHR which corresponds to the minimum LRL that is to be used bythe pacemaker. The maximum sensor indicated rate MaxHR is the maximumrate at which the pacemaker is allowed to pace the heart and is mappedto by the rate response curve from the maximum exertion level thepatient is expected to be able to reach, referred to as the maximumexercise capacity MEC. In the single-slope rate response curve shown inFIG. 1B, the response factor RF may then be defined as:RF=(MaxHR−MinHR)/(MEC−REL).

The responsiveness of the pacemaker can also be controlled in accordancewith a dual-slope rate response curve such as shown in FIG. 3. A changein exertion level EXL (as determined from either minute ventilation orbody activity) causes a change in the sensor indicated rate that isproportional to the slope of the response curve. The slope of the rateresponse curve is designated the initial response factor RF below theheart rate breakpoint HRB, and designated the high rate response factorHRRF above HRB. The heart rate breakpoint HRB ideally should be set tocorrespond to an exertion level equal to the anaerobic threshold AT ofthe patient. The anaerobic threshold is the level of exertion abovewhich the concentration of lactic acid produced by anaerobic metabolismstarts to build up rapidly in the blood. It thus represents an exertionlevel at which the body starts to utilize oxygen less efficiently and,along with maximal oxygen consumption, is a useful index of currentphysical conditioning. The responsiveness of the pacemaker below theanaerobic threshold as defined by RF is greater than that above thethreshold as defined by HRRF so that overpacing above the anaerobicthreshold is avoided.

The endpoints of any rate response curve are defined by a long-termmaximum exertion level EXL_(LongTermMax) corresponding the patient'smaximum exercise capacity which is mapped to the maximum sensorindicated rate MSR, and a minimum exertion level EXL_(Min) correspondingto a null EXL signal (i.e., rest) which is mapped to the minimum LRL.The minimum LRL is equal to the lower rate limit LRL setting ofpacemaker with no rate adaptation.

The initial values of the parameters RF, HRRF, HRB, long-term maximumexertion level EXL_(LongTermMax), and maximum sensor indicated rate MSRcan be specified at the time of pacemaker implant. The initial long-termmaximum exertion level is set to the exertion level which is mapped tothe MSR by the initial rate response curve or set to a value based uponpopulation data with the other parameters adjusted accordingly. The MSRis usually set to be equivalent to the age-predicted maximum heart rateMAR and limits the pacing rate of the pacemaker to protect againstexcessively rapid pacing, which would be especially detrimental inpatients with coronary artery disease. The MSR may therefore in somecases be set to a value lower than the age-predicted maximum heart rateMAR depending upon the patient's medical condition. A sensor target rateSTR may also be specified to represent a heart rate demand correspondingto a particular exertion level. The STR is used as a reference by thepacemaker control system to adjust the rate response curve so that thesensor target rate is reached when the patient exercises at theparticular exertion level. As described below, the STR may be updatedperiodically to represent a heart rate demand corresponding to a maximumexertion level attained during a specified period (e.g., daily) and iscompared with a maximum sensor indicated rate during the same specifiedperiod to adjust the rate response curve.

The initial values of EXL_(LongTermMax) and HRB can be determined fromformulas dependent upon the patient's age, while the initial STR can bedetermined by a formula dependent upon a desired target heart rateduring exercise and a specified exercise frequency as prescribed by aphysician at the time of implant. These parameters can be left fixedunless reprogrammed by a physician during a follow-up clinical visit,but this method of setting control parameters suffers from a number oflimitations. First, the patient's maximum exercise capacityEXL_(LongTermMax) and physiological heart rate at the anaerobicthreshold HRB depend not only on age, but also upon the physicalconditioning of the patient. Also, the STR and exercise frequencyprescribed by the physician may not match the patient's actual exerciseactivity and metabolic heart rate demand (i.e., the heart rate thatresults in a cardiac output sufficient to meet metabolic needs). If theSTR prescribed at implant is less than the patient's actual metabolicheart rate demand, the patient will only be paced at the prescribed STRand will never reach the required rate. If the STR is greater than theactual metabolic heart rate demand, on the other hand, overpacing willoccur. Finally, in the initial setting of the parameters, no account istaken of how the patient's exercise activity and exercise capacity maychange over time.

In accordance with the invention, the control system automaticallyadjusts the STR and EXL_(LongTermMax) from initially set values inaccordance with measurements of periodic maximum exertion levelsattained by the patient as measured by a minute ventilation or activitysensor. Periodic maximum sensor indicated rates are also collected forcomparison with the STR in order to adjust the response factor RF. Suchperiodic maximum exertion levels and sensor indicated rates arepreferably collected on a daily basis, and a weekly average of the dailymaximums is then used for weekly parameter adjustment. Other similartime periods for collection, averaging, or updating could, of course, beused in place of the daily and weekly periods referred to in theembodiments described herein, which periods may be referred to asshort-term and intermediate-term periods, respectively. In addition,sensor measurements and sensor indicated rates are preferably movingaveraged over a specified averaging period (where the averaging periodmay range, for example, from 30 seconds to 5 minutes) in order to smooththe data and filter out any spurious signals. In a particularembodiment, the exertion level signals EXL are automatically collectedby the device and moving averaged over a one minute averaging period.The maximum among the collected moving averages is then set equal to thedaily maximum exertion level EXL_(DailyMax), which is registered andstored. The daily maximum sensor indicated rate is similarly determined.The daily maximum exertion level EXL_(DailyMax) can then be averagedover a specified time period with the resulting average maximum exertionlevel also registered and stored, e.g., on a weekly basis to result in aweekly average value Week_Avg(EXL_(DailyMax)).

The long-term maximum exertion level EXL_(LongTermMax) is updated inaccordance with stored measurements of the patient's daily maximumexertion levels at periodic intervals (e.g., every three months, sixmonths, or year). The maximum value among the stored daily maximumexertion levels measured over the specified long-term period is thusregistered and stored as EXL_(LongTermMax). The STR is updated weeklybased upon the weekly average of the daily maximum exertion levelsEXL_(DailyMax) and the current value of EXL_(LongTermMax). Since the STRis automatically adjusted, an initial setting that does not correspondto the patient's true physiological heart rate demand during exercisewill be corrected so that the patient will not be locked to aninappropriate rate. The control system can then use the updated STRand/or EXL_(LongTermMax) values to adjust the slope of the rate responsecurve (i.e., RF and/or HRRF) and the HRB. Automatically adjusting boththe rate response curve slope and HRB thus obviates the need for thephysician to attempt to calculate the most appropriate parameter valuesat the time of implantation or during follow-up. The responsiveness ofthe pacemaker will then be reflective of the patient's individualexertion levels, and will also automatically adjust in response tochanges in the patient's functional capacity or level of physicalconditioning. The patient's exertion level and exercise capacity historyis also stored and able to be retrieved by a clinician in order toassess both the patient and the functioning of the pacemaker.

The STR is determined from an average of daily maximal exertion levelheart rates EXR_(DailyMax) over a specified period. The daily maximalexertion level heart rate EXR_(DailyMax) approximates the heart ratedemand corresponding to the daily maximum exertion level EXL_(DailyMax).The daily maximum exertion level heart rate EXR_(DailyMax) is thus afunction of the daily maximal exertion level EXL_(DailyMax) and isdetermined in this embodiment in accordance with the following tablethat maps ranges of EXL_(DailyMax) values relative to EXL_(LongTermMax)to an EXR_(DailyMax) value expressed relative to the MAR:

EXL_(DailyMax) EXR_(DailyMax) (in bpm) 80-100% of EXL_(LongTermMax) =90% of MAR 50-80% of EXL_(LongTermMax) = 70% of MAR <50% ofEXL_(LongTermMax) = 90 bpmIn other embodiments, rather than comparing EXL_(DailyMax) with discretethresholds of EXL_(LongTermMax), the daily maximum exertion level heartrate EXR_(DailyMax) may be expressed as a continuous function of thedaily maximal exertion level EXL_(DailyMax), EXL_(LongTermMax), and theMAR:EXR_(DailyMax)=(EXL_(DailyMax)/EXL_(LongTermMax))MARIn a presently preferred embodiment, the STR is computed as a weeklyaverage of daily maximum exertion level heart rates.

The daily maximum sensor indicated rate SIR is also moving averaged overthe same period as the exertion level signals EXL, with the dailymaximum moving average value SIR_(DailyMax) being registered and stored.The SIR_(DailyMax) values are averaged in this embodiment on a weeklybasis to result in the average maximal sensor indicated rateWeek_Avg(SIR_(DailyMax)). The weekly average maximal sensor indicatedrate Week_Avg(SIR_(DailyMax)) is compared with the STR on a weekly basisto control the adjustment of the response factor RF (i.e., the slope ofthe rate response curve). If the STR is higher than theWeek_Avg(SIR_(DailyMax)), the RF will be increased by one step; if theSTR is lower, the RF will be decreased by one step. The HRRF may theneither be updated as a percentage of the RF or in accordance with anupdated EXL_(LongTermMax) value.

The HRB is initially set to a value above the LRL equal to 60% of therate reserve, where the rate reserve is the amount by which a patient'sage-predicted maximum heart rate MAR exceeds the LRL. In one embodimentthe HRB is maintained as a fixed percentage of the rate reserve asinitially set. In another embodiment, the HRB is a dynamic percentage ofthe rate reserve such that if the long-term maximal exertion levelEXL_(LongTermMax) (i.e., the patient's peak exercise capacity) isincreased due to exercise or fitness training, the HRB is increasedproportionately to the increase in the long-term maximal exertion level.The HRB is thus determined from a formula based upon both the patient'sage and peak exertion level, which is more indicative of the patient'sactual physiological heart rate demand at the anaerobic threshold than aformula based upon age alone. In an exemplary embodiment, for the firstthree months after implant the long-term maximal exertion level isstarted with a value equal to the upper limit of maximal exertion levelsmeasured from a similar patient population, or with a value mapped fromthe initial RF, HRB, HRRF, and age-predicted maximum heart rate MAR. Theinitial long-term maximal exertion level EXL_(LongTermMax) is maintainedfor three months unless updated by a measured EXL_(DailyMax) value thatis higher.

In the specific embodiment detailed below, the STR is periodicallyadjusted in accordance with updated weekly averages of the daily maximumexertion level heart rate EXR_(DailyMax). The EXL_(LongTermMax) is alsoupdated in accordance with weekly averages of the patient's maximumexertion levels. A minimum value for EXL_(LongTermMax), designatedEXL_(LongTermMaxMin), is determined from population data, the rateresponse function, and the age-predicted maximum heart rate MAR. In thisembodiment, the HRB is maintained at the initialized value, and the HRRFis maintained as a constant percentage of the RF. The method steps aredivided into three phases: initialization, daily monitoring, and weeklyupdating:

Initialization:

MSR=(220−age);

MAR=max(220−age,MSR);

LRL=60;

HRB=LRL+0.6*(MAR_LRL)

RF=5 (for a minute ventilation signal MV) or RF=8 (for an activitysignal XL);

EXL_(LongTermMax)=average maximal exertion value taken from populationdata;

EXL_(LongTermMaxMin)=max (MAR/(1.3*RF), population average minimumvalue);

HRRF=0.7*RF;

Daily Monitoring:

Compute 1 minute moving averages of EXL and SIR signals and storemaximum;

EXL_(DailyMax)=maximum moving average value of EXL computed during theday;

SIR_(DailyMax)=maximum moving average value of SIR computed during theday;

Weekly Parameter Updating:

Compute Week_Avg(SIR_(DailyMax)) and Week_Avg(EXL_(DailyMax));

EXL_(LongTermMax)=max (Week_Avg(EXL_(DailyMax))averaged over 3 mos.,EXL_(LongTermMaxMin));

STR=(F_(rest)*90+F_(mild)*0.7*MAR+F_(vigorous)*0.9*MAR)/7

where F_(rest)=(number of days EXL_(DailyMax) is less than 50% ofEXL_(LongTermMax))

F_(mild)=(number of days EXL_(DailyMax) is between 50% and 80% ofEXL_(LongTermMax))

F_(vigorous)=(number of days EXL_(DailyMax) is over 80% ofEXL_(LongTermMax));

If Week_Avg(SIR_(DailyMax))<STR then RF is increased by one step (e.g.15%);

If Week_Avg(SIR_(DailyMax))>STR then RF is decreased by one step (e.g.15%);

HRRF=0.7*RF;

In addition, an initial optimization procedure may be performed for aspecified period (e.g., 6 months) in order to optimize the initialsettings of the control parameters used by the algorithm. In a firstsuch optimization procedure, the patient first exercises for a one-hourperiod with the parameters set as follows:

After First Hour:

EXL_(LongTermMax)=max(EXL_(LongTermMaxMin),(1+B)*EXL_(FirstHourMax))

where EXL_(FirstHourMax) is the maximal exertion level during the hourof exercise

and B is a selected buffering factor (e.g., 1, 0.33, or 0);

Every Hour:

If EXL_(DailyMax)>EXL_(LongTermMax)

then increase EXL_(LongTermMaxMin) by one step (e.g., 15%);

RF=(HRB−LRL)/(0.5*EXL_(LongTermMaxMin));

Every Week:

If (1+B)*EXL_(DailyMax)<EXL_(LongTermMax) andEXL_(LongTermMax)>EXL_(LongTermMaxMin)

then decrease EXL_(LongTermMaxMin) by one step (e.g., 15%);

RF=(HRB−LRL)/(0.5*EXL_(LongTermMaxMin));

In a second optimization procedure, the following steps are performedwith no preceding exercise period:

Initial Setting:

MSR=LRL+0.75*(MAR−LRL);

For Second Month:

MSR=LRL+0.90*(MAR−LRL);

For Third Through Sixth Months:

MSR=LRL+(MAR−LRL);

Every Hour:

If EXL_(DailyMax)>S*EXL_(LongTermMax)

then increase EXL_(LongTermMaxMin) by one step (e.g., 15%);

RF=(HRB−LRL)/(0.5*EXL_(LongTermMaxMin));

where S=85% for first month and 100% for next five months;

Every Week:

If (1+B)*EXL_(DailyMax)<EXL_(LongTermMax) andEXL_(LongTermMax)>EXL_(LongTermMaxMin)

then decrease EXL_(LongTermMaxMin) by one step (e.g., 15%);

RF=(HRB−LRL)/(0.5*EXL_(LongTermMax));

In a second specific embodiment, the method steps are similarly dividedinto three phases: initialization, daily monitoring, and weeklyupdating.

Initialization:

MAR=(220−age);

LRL=60;

HRB=LRL+0.6*(MAR−LRL);

RF=5 (for a minute ventilation signal MV) or RF=8 (for an activitysignal XL);

EXL_(LongTermMax)=average maximal exertion value taken from populationdata;

EXL_(LongTermMaxMin)=max (MAR/(1.3*RF), population average minimumvalue);

HRRF=determined such that EXL_(LongTermMax) maps to MAR;

Daily Monitoring:

Compute 1-3 minute moving averages of EXL and SIR signals and storemaximum;

EXL_(DailyMax)=maximum moving average value of EXL computed during theday;

SIR_(DailyMax)=maximum moving average value of SIR computed during theday;

Weekly Parameter Updating:

(EXL_(LongTermMaxMin)=max(EXL_(DailyMax), (EXL_(LongTermMaxMin));)

Compute Week_Avg(SIR_(DailyMax)) and Week_Avg(EXL_(DailyMax));

HRB is adjusted proportionate to the change in EXL_(LongTermMax) suchthat

HRB=LRL+(0.6+percentage change in EXL_(LongTermMax))*(MAR−LRL);

STR=(F_(rest)*90+F_(mild)*0.7*MAR+F_(vigorous)*0.9*MAR)/7

where F_(rest)=(number of days EXL_(DailyMax) is less than 50% ofEXL_(LongTermMax))

F_(mild)=(number of days EXL_(DailyMax) is between 50% and 80% ofEXL_(LongTermMax))

F_(vigorous) (number of days EXL_(DailyMax) is over 80% ofEXL_(LongTermMax));

If Week_Avg(SIR_(DailyMax))<STR then RF is increased by one step;

If Week_Avg(SIR_(DailyMax))>STR then RF is decreased by one step;

HRRF=min (RF, (MAR−HRB)/(EXL_(LongTermMax) HRB/RF));

During first 6 months after implant, the following steps are alsoperformed:

If EXL_(DailyMax)>EXL_(LongTermMax)

then (EXL_(LongTermMax)=1.1*EXL_(DailyMax));

If EXL_(DailyMax)>EXL_(LongTermMax)

then EXL_(LongTermMax)=max(0.9*EXL_(LongTermMax),Min(EXL_(LongTermMax)));

FIGS. 2 through 5 illustrate the operation of the methods justdescribed. FIG. 2 shows values of SIR_(DailyMax) plotted for each day ofthe week. The average value of SIR_(DailyMax) for the weekWeek_Avg(SIR_(DailyMax)) is also shown along with the sensor target rateSTR. As can be seen, Week_Avg(SIR_(DailyMax)) exceeds the STR, so theslope of the rate response curve RF is reduced by one step. FIG. 3 showsthe result of the slope change where curve 30 has adjusted to curve 31.The system has been made less responsive in order to compensate for theaverage sensor indicated rate exceeding the sensor target rate duringthe past week. If the Week_Avg(SIR_(DailyMax)) had been less than theSTR, the slope of the rate responsive curve would have been increased byone step to make the system more responsive. Note that in this example,both STR and HRB are left unchanged, but are mapped to differentexertion levels due to the change in slope of the rate response curve.The high rate response factor may be further adjusted to map thepatient's long-term maximum exertion level to the specified maximumsensor indicated rate.

FIGS. 4 and 5 show how the method responds to changes in the fitnesslevel of the patient as reflected by changes in the long-term maximalexertion level EXL_(LongTermMax). The rate response curve is dynamicallyadjusted in response to changes in EXL_(LongTermMax) by adjusting thecurve so that EXL_(LongTermMax) is mapped to the patient's maximum heartrate MAR (or MSR). In FIG. 5, the initial rate response curve 40 isadjusted to curve 41 when the EXL_(LongTermMax) value is decreased, andadjusted to curve 42 when the EXL_(LongTermMax) value is increased. Inthis example, the heart rate breakpoint HRB is maintained as a constantpercentage of the rate reserve and so is left unchanged asEXL_(LongTermMax) changes. FIG. 5 shows how the HRB value may instead becomputed as a dynamic percentage of the rate reserve that depends uponthe value of EXL_(LongTermMax). As EXL_(LongTermMax) decreases due todeconditioning, initial rate response curve 50 is adjusted to curve 51.The heart rate breakpoint in this embodiment is also adjusted inaccordance with the formula given above so that it decreases, which isreflective of the fact that the anaerobic threshold decreases withdecreasing fitness levels. Similarly, if EXL_(LongTermMax) is increaseddue to an increased fitness level, rate response curve 50 adjusts tocurve 52, and the HRB parameter increases.

For safety reasons, it may be desirable in certain embodiments toimplement the system described above such that EXL_(LongTermMax) is onlyincreased in response to changes in the patient's physical conditioningand never decreased. That is, once the patient achieves a certainEXL_(LongTermMax), it is assumed that the patient's maximum exercisecapacity will not decrease from that level. This prevents theEXL_(LongTermMax) from being decreased simply by the patient going for along period without exercising maximally and thereby subjecting thepatient to overpacing.

FIG. 6 shows the values of EXL_(DailyMax) plotted for each day of theweek and an indication on the exertion level axis showing how the rangesof EXL_(DailyMax) are mapped to daily maximum exertion level heart rateEXR_(DailyMax) values. These values are then used to adjust the STRvalue in accordance with the formula given above. The daily averageexertion level for each day is also shown for comparison.

As described above, the responsiveness of a rate-adaptive pacemakerdepends upon four endpoint settings that define its dynamic range: theminimum pacing rate, the resting exertion level, the maximum exercisecapacity or long-term maximum exertion level, and the maximumsensor-indicated rate MSR. In clinical practice, the MSR is programmedrelatively low by most physicians. This is because the dynamic range ofan optimized rate-response curve varies from patient to patient, and therate-response curve may take several weeks to reach a favorable degreeof responsiveness with automatic parameter adjustment as the patient'smaximum exercise capacity is determined from exertion levelmeasurements. Unless the MSR is conservatively set, the patient mayexperience severe overpacing during this period. Furthermore, manypacemaker patients suffer from some degree of coronary artery disease,and overpacing in this situation is especially hazardous due to aninsufficient myocardial oxygen supply. A disadvantage of initiallysetting the MSR to a low value, however, is that the patient's exercisecapacity is significantly compromised. Since the patient's maximumexercise capacity is usually mapped to the MSR by the rate responsecurve, the patient will never reach an appropriate paced heart rate whenexercising maximally. More importantly, a low MSR will also decrease theresponsiveness of the rate-adaptive pacemaker by decreasing the slope ofthe rate-response curve. The patient will therefore not only have alimited maximal heart rate, but will also have a lower than appropriatesensor-indicated rate beginning from exercise onset.

The under-responsiveness problem described above may be alleviated witha rate response curve that maps the long-term maximum exertion level toan age-predicted maximal heart rate or other specified maximal rate thatis deemed physiologically favorable, referred to as the MAR. Thespecified MSR is then used only as a hard limit value for the sensorindicated rate and has no effect on the slope of the rate response curveor in the determination of the daily average maximum exertion level,long-term maximum exertion level, STR, or HRB. If the value of the MARis less than the value of the MSR, the patient will thus never be pacedat a rate corresponding to the MAR even when exercising at peakcapacity. The MAR is used to establish the slope of the rate responsecurve so that the responsiveness of the pacemaker is not compromised byan initially low MSR value until an exertion level demanding a heartrate equal to the MSR is reached. In one embodiment, the MSR may beinitially specified as a discounted percentage of the MAR and thengradually raised to the MAR over a specified length of time. Forexample, the MSR may be programmed as follows:

First month: MSR = LRL + 75% of (220 − age − LRL) Second month: MSR =LRL + 90% of (220 − age − LRL) Third month and MSR = 220 − agethereafter:The MSR can thus be set at a rate that avoids possible overpacing whilethe pacemaker is automatically determining the patient's maximumexercise capacity but without causing a lower than appropriate sensorindicated rate at exertion levels less than those that would be mappedto rates above the MSR.

Although the invention has been described in conjunction with theforegoing specific embodiment, many alternatives, variations, andmodifications will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art.Such alternatives, variations, and modifications are intended to fallwithin the scope of the following appended claims.

1. A rate-adaptive pacemaker, comprising: a sensor adapted to senseexertion levels; and a microprocessor coupled to the sensor, themicroprocessor adapted to: collect short-term maximum exertion levels;update a long-term maximal exertion level periodically by setting thelong-term maximal exertion level to a maximum of the short-term maximumexertion levels collected during a specified time period; and adjust aresponse factor, the response factor being a slope of a rate responsecurve mapping exertion levels to sensor indicated rates, wherein theresponse factor is adjusted such that the updated long-term maximalexertion level is mapped to a specified maximum sensor indicated rate.2. The pacemaker of claim 1, wherein the rate response curve is adual-slope curve, and the response factor changes from a low rateresponse factor to a high rate response factor at a heart ratebreakpoint computed as a percentage of a rate reserve being a differencebetween maximum and minimum sensor indicated rates defined by the rateresponse curve, and the microprocessor is adapted to adjust the responsefactor with the heart rate breakpoint maintained at a fixed percentageof the rate reserve.
 3. The pacemaker of claim 1, wherein the rateresponse curve is a dual-slope curve, and the response factor changesfrom a low rate response factor to a high rate response factor at aheart rate breakpoint computed as a percentage of a rate reserve being adifference between maximum and minimum sensor indicated rates defined bythe rate response curve, and the microprocessor is adapted to adjust theresponse factor with the heart rate breakpoint maintained at a dynamicpercentage of the rate reserve that changes with the long-term maximumexertion level.
 4. The pacemaker of claim 1, wherein the microprocessoris further adapted to: collect short-term maximum sensor indicatedrates; compute an intermediate-term average maximum sensor indicatedrate being an average of the short-term maximum sensor indicated ratescollected during a specified intermediate-term period; compute anintermediate-term average maximum exertion level being an average of theshort-term maximum exertion levels collected during the specifiedintermediate-term period; compute a sensor target rate as a function ofthe intermediate-term average maximum exertion level and the long-termmaximum exertion level; and adjust the slope of the rate response curveusing the intermediate-term average maximum sensor indicated rate andthe sensor target rate.
 5. The pacemaker of claim 4, wherein the sensoris adapted to sense a signal being an approximation to oxygenconsumption.
 6. The pacemaker of claim 5, wherein the sensor comprises aminute ventilation sensor.
 7. The pacemaker of claim 4, wherein thesensor comprises an accelerometer.
 8. The pacemaker of claim 4, whereinthe microprocessor is adapted to adjust the slope of the rate responsecurve periodically using a difference between the intermediate-termaverage maximum sensor indicated rate and the sensor target rate.
 9. Thepacemaker of claim 8, wherein the microprocessor is adapted to computemoving average values of the sensed exertion levels and moving averagevalues of the sensor indicated rates during a specified short-termperiod.
 10. The pacemaker of claim 9, wherein the specified short-termperiod is a day, and the specified intermediate-term period is a week.11. A rate-adaptive pacemaker, comprising: a sensor adapted to senseexertion levels; and a microprocessor coupled to the sensor, themicroprocessor adapted to: collect short-term maximum exertion levelsand short-term maximum sensor indicated rates; compute anintermediate-term average maximum exertion level being an average of theshort-term maximum exertion levels and an intermediate-term averagemaximum sensor indicated rate being an average of the short-term sensorindicated rates; compute a sensor target rate as a function of theintermediate-term average short-term maximum exertion level and amaximum exercise capacity as defined by a long-term maximum exertionlevel; and adjust a response factor using the intermediate-term averagemaximum sensor indicated rate and the sensor target rate, the responsefactor being a slope of a rate response curve that maps exertion levelsto sensor indicated rates.
 12. The pacemaker of claim 11, wherein themicroprocessor is adapted to adjust the response factor periodicallyusing a difference between the intermediate-term average maximum sensorindicated rate and the sensor target rate.
 13. The pacemaker of claim12, wherein the microprocessor is adapted to compute moving averagevalues of the sensed exertion levels and moving average values of thesensor indicated rates during a specified short-term period.
 14. Thepacemaker of claim 13, wherein the microprocessor is adapted to adjustthe response factor in specified increments.
 15. The pacemaker of claim11, wherein the rate response curve is a dual-slope curve, and theresponse factor changes from a low rate response factor to a high rateresponse factor at a heart rate breakpoint computed as a percentage of arate reserve being a difference between maximum and minimum sensorindicated rates defined by the rate response curve, and themicroprocessor is adapted to adjust the low rate response factor usingthe intermediate-term average maximum sensor indicated rate and thesensor target rate.
 16. The pacemaker of claim 15, wherein themicroprocessor is adapted to adjust the high rate response factor suchthat the long-term maximum exertion level is mapped to a specifiedmaximum sensor indicated rate.
 17. The pacemaker of claim 11, whereinthe microprocessor is adapted to: update the long-term maximal exertionlevel periodically by setting the long-term maximal exertion level to amaximum of the short-term maximum exertion levels collected during aspecified short-term time period; and adjust the response factor suchthat the updated long-term maximal exertion level is mapped to aspecified maximum sensor indicated rate.
 18. The pacemaker of claim 17,wherein the sensor is adapted to sense a signal being an approximationto oxygen consumption.
 19. The pacemaker of claim 18, wherein the sensorcomprises a minute ventilation sensor.
 20. The pacemaker of claim 17,wherein the sensor comprises an accelerometer.